Persia

Resources

The sources and the research

Where each fact of the page comes from: the ancient sources, the broken parts of the cylinder, the scholarly works and the size of the field.

Method

How to read a source

Every source has an author, a time and a reason to write. Ask these ten questions before you trust it.

  1. Ask who wrote it.A king, a temple scribe, a prophet and a Greek traveller see the same event from different places.
  2. Ask when.A source close to the event weighs more than a source written centuries later.
  3. Ask for whom.A text buried in a wall speaks to the gods and to future kings, not to the crowd in the street.
  4. Ask what the author gained.A new ruler must show that the old ruler was bad and that heaven chose him.
  5. Look for the fixed pattern."The god was angry, chose a new king, and the city opened its gates" is a pattern that many kings used.
  6. Look at the silence.What a source leaves out is evidence too.
  7. Separate the record from the story.A dated business tablet has little reason to lie. A royal text or a novel has many.
  8. Watch the legend grow.Good stories grow with time and distance.
  9. Cross-check across groups.A fact that a hostile and a friendly source both report is strong.
  10. Read the modern uses too.A translation, a museum label or a national celebration can add what the ancient text never said.

Distance

The sources by distance

A source that was written near 539 BC weighs more than a source that was written centuries later. Each group starts with its nearest source.

A number below zero is a source that was written before 539 BC.

Babylonian

Years from 539 BC -17 to +20 years

What they say
chosen by Marduk, a peaceful entry into Babylon, a restorer of cults. The Chronicle also records a killing at Opis
Typical bias
written under Persian rule, the royal genre, the "bad king" topos for Nabonidus

  1. Nabonidus 47, the Ḫarrān stele, and his other texts (RINBE 2)

    Years from 539 BC
    -17 to 0
    Written
    556-539 BC
    Rank
    1
    Interest of the author
    Nabonidus, devotee of Sîn
    Bias
    the one voice for Nabonidus, self-praise

  2. Nabonidus 28, the Eḫulḫul cylinder (RINBE 2, Oracc Q005425)

    Years from 539 BC
    -14 to -4
    Written
    about 553-543 BC
    Rank
    1
    Interest of the author
    Nabonidus, royal building text
    Bias
    royal self-praise. Cyrus is still a tool of his gods

  3. Archive tablets of Sippar and Uruk, October 539

    Years from 539 BC
    0
    Written
    539 BC
    Rank
    1
    Interest of the author
    temple scribes, business
    Bias
    low. Not propaganda. Only the royal name in the date is political

  4. The Cyrus Cylinder (BM 90920, NBC 2504)

    Years from 539 BC
    0 to 1
    Written
    539-538 BC
    Rank
    1
    Interest of the author
    Babylonian scribes of Esagil, for Cyrus
    Bias
    high. The voice of the winner, the "bad king, good king" pattern

  5. The tablet copy (BM 47134, BM 47176)

    Years from 539 BC
    0 to about 40
    Written
    about 540-500 BC (if Yeranin is right)
    Rank
    1
    Interest of the author
    a scribe copies the text
    Bias
    none of its own

  6. Cyrus bricks of Ur and Uruk (ARIo Q006654, Q006655)

    Years from 539 BC
    0 to 9
    Written
    539-530 BC
    Rank
    1
    Interest of the author
    the new king in local form
    Bias
    royal formula

  7. Nabonidus Chronicle, ABC 7 (BM 35382)

    Years from 539 BC
    events 0, the copy about 150 to 480
    Written
    content contemporary. The only copy is late: "roughly in the period between Artaxerxes II and 60 b.c.e." (Waerzeggers 2015, p. 109)
    Rank
    1 (content)
    Interest of the author
    Esagil scholars, a year-by-year record
    Bias
    low to medium. Cool in tone (vdS 2014, p. 250 n. 141), but it may draw on the cylinder (Waerzeggers 2015)

  8. Verse Account of Nabonidus (BM 38299)

    Years from 539 BC
    0 to about 20
    Written
    539 to about 520 BC
    Rank
    1
    Interest of the author
    a scribal circle hostile to Nabonidus
    Bias
    high. A satire, "anti-Nabonidus propaganda" with "some kernel of truth" (vdS 2014, pp. 250, 253)

  9. Dynastic Prophecy (BM 40623)

    Years from 539 BC
    about 200 or more
    Written
    early Hellenistic, after 330 BC
    Rank
    4
    Interest of the author
    Babylonian scholars after Alexander, "prophecy" after the event
    Bias
    medium. A late fixed form

Persian

Years from 539 BC +19 to +45

What they say
the father of Cambyses, "an Achaemenid" in texts made by Darius. No narrative of 539
Typical bias
the self-legitimation of Darius

  1. Behistun (DB), Darius I

    Years from 539 BC
    about 20
    Written
    520-519 BC
    Rank
    2
    Interest of the author
    Darius must show that he is the lawful heir of Cyrus
    Bias
    high. Royal self-justification. Silent on 539

  2. Pasargadae CMa, CMb, CMc

    Years from 539 BC
    about 20 or more
    Written
    under Darius I, after 520 BC
    Rank
    2
    Interest of the author
    Darius gives Cyrus his own family name
    Bias
    high. They speak as Cyrus, but Darius made them

  3. Persepolis Fortification tablets

    Years from 539 BC
    30 to 45
    Written
    509-494 BC
    Rank
    2
    Interest of the author
    royal accounts
    Bias
    low. Silent on 539, as accounts are

Hebrew

Years from 539 BC -8 to +375

What they say
the anointed of YHWH, the liberator of the exiles, the builder of the temple
Typical bias
a theological frame, written after the events except perhaps parts of Isaiah

  1. Isaiah 40-55 (44:28-45:13)

    Years from 539 BC
    -8 to about 100
    Written
    three views: before 539, after 539 in the 6th century, or the 5th century (Tiemeyer 2024, pp. 132-133)
    Rank
    3
    Interest of the author
    the supremacy of YHWH
    Bias
    high. Theology. Cyrus as the anointed of YHWH

  2. Ezra 1 and 6

    Years from 539 BC
    more than 100
    Written
    late Persian period (date not checked in this pass)
    Rank
    3
    Interest of the author
    the legitimacy of the temple of Jerusalem
    Bias
    high. Its decree is "likely to be fictitious" (Tiemeyer 2024, pp. 126-127)

  3. Elephantine petition to Bagohi (Cowley 30)

    Years from 539 BC
    about 130
    Written
    407 BC
    Rank
    3
    Interest of the author
    a Jewish garrison asks to rebuild its temple
    Bias
    special pleading

  4. 2 Chronicles 36:22-23

    Years from 539 BC
    more than 150
    Written
    late Persian or early Hellenistic (not checked)
    Rank
    3
    Interest of the author
    the same as Ezra
    Bias
    high. It copies Ezra

  5. Daniel 4-6

    Years from 539 BC
    about 375
    Written
    167-163 BC
    Rank
    4
    Interest of the author
    hope under Antiochus IV
    Bias
    very high for history. "Darius the Mede" is unknown elsewhere

  6. Qumran 4Q242, the Prayer of Nabonidus

    Years from 539 BC
    about 490
    Written
    copy of the late 1st century BC
    Rank
    4
    Interest of the author
    a Jewish tale of piety
    Bias
    high, but it keeps Tayma and an illness

Greek

Years from 539 BC +70 to +670

What they say
a great founder, "a father" (Herodotus 3.89), an ideal king (Xenophon), a man of humble or legendary birth
Typical bias
the Persian as the other, the good Cyrus against the bad Xerxes, court gossip, legend

  1. Bacchylides, Ode 3 (Croesus only)

    Years from 539 BC
    about 70
    Written
    about 468 BC
    Rank
    3
    Interest of the author
    a victory ode
    Bias
    poetic

  2. Herodotus, Histories

    Years from 539 BC
    95 to 115
    Written
    about 445-425 BC
    Rank
    3
    Interest of the author
    Greek inquiry, Persian informants
    Bias
    medium to high. The Persian as the other. The river story "probably unhistorical" (vdS 2014, p. 255)

  3. Ctesias, Persica (via Nicolaus of Damascus only)

    Years from 539 BC
    about 145
    Written
    about 395-390 BC
    Rank
    3
    Interest of the author
    court stories
    Bias
    high. Court gossip

  4. Xenophon, Cyropaedia

    Years from 539 BC
    about 175
    Written
    about 365-360 BC
    Rank
    3
    Interest of the author
    a mirror for princes
    Bias
    high. An ideal, "romanticized" (vdS 2014, p. 236)

  5. Berossus, Babyloniaca, via Josephus, Against Apion 1.20

    Years from 539 BC
    about 260 (Josephus: about 635)
    Written
    about 280s BC
    Rank
    4
    Interest of the author
    a Babylonian priest of Esagil who writes in Greek for the Seleucid court
    Bias
    medium. Late, through two hands. Not hostile to Nabonidus

  6. Strabo 15.3.7

    Years from 539 BC
    about 560
    Written
    about AD 20
    Rank
    4
    Interest of the author
    geography, after the historians of Alexander
    Bias
    medium. From an eyewitness of 330 BC

  7. Arrian, Anabasis 6.29

    Years from 539 BC
    about 670
    Written
    2nd century AD
    Rank
    4
    Interest of the author
    the history of Alexander
    Bias
    medium. The tomb of Cyrus, from Aristobulus

Roman and late antique

Years from 539 BC +520 to +1,100

What they say
a reader of Isaiah (Josephus), a moral story (Justin)
Typical bias
compression, the harmony of the Bible with Greek history

  1. Justin, epitome of Pompeius Trogus 1.4-8

    Years from 539 BC
    520 to 900
    Written
    Trogus about AD 1, Justin 2nd to 4th century
    Rank
    4
    Interest of the author
    universal history, moral stories
    Bias
    high. The order of the wars is wrong against ABC 7

  2. Josephus, Jewish Antiquities 10-11

    Years from 539 BC
    about 630
    Written
    AD 93-94
    Rank
    4
    Interest of the author
    Jewish history for a Roman audience
    Bias
    high. It joins Daniel and Isaiah into one story

  3. Agathias 2.25.7 (not seen, via Shahbazi, Iranica "Historiography ii")

    Years from 539 BC
    about 1,100
    Written
    6th century AD
    Rank
    4
    Interest of the author
    Byzantine history
    Bias
    shows how hazy the memory of the Achaemenids became

Source: our research of 2026-10-07. Each short quote names its author.

The broken text

The gaps of the cylinder

The edition restores 223 signs that the cylinder lost. Only 48 of them come from an ancient copy. Editors supplied the other 175.

Each passage below shows its text at the two levels, the source of each restoration and how sure the scholars are.

How to read the text

  • On the cylinderThe sign is on the clay today.
  • Restored from an ancient copyA clay tablet that copied the text keeps the sign. A solid line marks it.
  • Restored by editorsNo ancient copy keeps the sign. Editors supplied it from a fixed formula, a parallel text or the sense. Brackets and italics mark it.
  • TraceA mark on the clay that nobody can read.
  • Lost textA gap of unknown length.

  1. Lines 1-3

    The broken opening: Marduk, and the "low person" in charge

    آغاز شکسته: مردوک، و «فرد فرومایه» بر سر کار

    Confidence: likelya fixed formula or a close parallel gives the words

    "Marduk" likely (the tablet keeps part of the name); line 2 open; "his eldest son" likely; the name Belshazzar is an identification only, not on the clay.

    • 24 signs on the cylinder
    • 22 restored from an ancient copy
    • 16 restored by editors
    Ancient copy
    BM 47134
    Source of the restorations
    Lines 1-2: the tablet copy BM 47134 obv. 1-4 (identified by W. G. Lambert and I. Finkel, 2009-2010; edition Finkel 2013, pp. 129-133). "Marduk" restored by Finkel from a queried UTU on the tablet. "When", "who inspects" and line 3 "[offspring]" are editorial (Finkel 2013, Novotny ARIo). The tablet holds no sign of the line 3 clause.

    What it tells us

    The opening praised Marduk as the king of heaven and earth. We know this from a later clay tablet copy, not from the cylinder. The "low person" put in charge of the land in line 3 is most likely Belshazzar, son of Nabonidus, but his name is not on the clay and the word "offspring" is a modern restoration.

    آغاز متن مردوک را شاه آسمان و زمین می‌ستود؛ این را از یک لوح گلی رونوشت می‌دانیم، نه از خود استوانه. «فرد فرومایه‌ای» که در سطر ۳ بر سرزمین گماشته شد به احتمال زیاد بلشصر، پسر نبونید، است، اما نام او بر گل نیست و واژهٔ «فرزند» بازسازی امروزی است.

    Read the restored text: The broken opening: Marduk, and the "low person" in charge

    1. Line 1

      (Restored by editors:) i-nu {d}AMAR.(Restored from an ancient copy:) UTU LUGAL kiš-šat AN-e u KI-tim x (Lost text:) … (Restored by editors:) ša₂ ina (Restored from an ancient copy:) x-si-šu₂ u₂-nam-mu-(Restored by editors:) u₂ (Lost text:) … (Trace:) x-ni-šu₂

      [When the god Mard]uk, the king of all of heaven and earth, [... who] lays to waste his [...] ... [through] his ...,

      [آنگاه که مرد]وک، شاه همهٔ آسمان و زمین، […] که […] او را ویران می‌کند، […] به […]ِ خود،

    2. Line 2

      (Lost text:) … (Restored by editors:) ra-pa-(Restored from an ancient copy:) aš₂ uz-nam x x x (Lost text:) … (Restored by editors:) ha-a-a-iṭ ki-ib-ra-a-tim

      [... bro]ad in intelligence, ... [..., the one who inspects the (four) qu]arters (of the world),

      […] با خرد گسترده، … […] آن‌که چهار گوشهٔ (جهان) را می‌پاید، […]

    3. Line 3

      (Lost text:) … (Restored by editors:) ṣi-it lib₃-bi-šu GAL ma-ṭu-u₂ iš-šak-na a-na e-nu-tu ma-ti-šu₂

      [...], his eldest [off]spring (Belshazzar), a lowly person, was installed as the ruler of his land,

      […]، نخست‌زاده‌اش (بلشزر)، مردی فرومایه، به فرمانروایی سرزمینش گمارده شد.

  2. Lines 4-8

    The charges against Nabonidus

    اتهام‌های نبونید

    Confidence: likelya fixed formula or a close parallel gives the words

    The charges are on the clay (certain). The restored words are likely to open.

    • 135 signs on the cylinder
    • 0 restored from an ancient copy
    • 19 restored by editors
    Source of the restorations
    Editorial only, no duplicate. Weissbach 1911, Schaudig 2001 (via Cogan 2003), Finkel 2013, Novotny ARIo. "pelludû" (line 7) is probably Finkel's restoration, after the Babylon Stele of Nabonidus.

    What it tells us

    This is the charge sheet against Nabonidus: a "replica" of Esagil for Ur, improper rites and halted offerings. The charges are on the clay, but the Babylonian Chronicle says the offerings went on "as in normal times", and the missing words are proposals of the editors.

    این بخش کیفرخواست نبونید است: «بدلی» از اِسَگیل برای شهر اور، آیین‌های نابجا و بازداشتن قربانی‌ها. اتهام‌ها بر گل هستند، اما گاه‌نامهٔ بابلی می‌گوید قربانی‌ها «مانند روزهای عادی» ادامه داشت، و واژه‌های افتاده پیشنهاد ویراستاران است.

    Read the restored text: The charges against Nabonidus

    1. Line 4

      (Trace:) x (Lost text:) … tam-ši-li u₂-ša-aš₂-ki-na ṣe-ru-šu-un

      [...] he caused [..., a re]plica, to be set up over them.

      […] نمونه‌ای ساختگی [… ] را بر آنان برپا داشت.

    2. Line 5

      ta-am-ši-li e₂-sag-il₂ i-te-(Restored by editors:) pu-uš-ma x-tim a-na uri₂{KI} u₃ si-it-ta-ti₃ ma-ha-za

      He bu[ilt] a replica of Esagil [and ...] for (the city) Ur and the rest of the cult-center(s).

      نمونه‌ای ساختگی از اِسَگیل ساخت [و …] برای (شهر) اور و دیگر شهرهای آیینی.

    3. Line 6

      pa-ra-aṣ la si-ma-ti-šu-nu ta-(Restored by editors:) ak-li-im la me-si (Lost text:) … (Restored by editors:) la pa-lih u₂-mi-ša-am-ma id-de-ne₂-eb-bu-ub u₃ a-na ma-ag-ri-tim

      Daily, he devised cultic rites that were not befitting them, [impure] food of[ferings, ..., dis]respectful [...] and, as a spiteful act,

      هر روز آیین‌هایی ناشایستِ آنان می‌ساخت، پیشکش‌های خوراکیِ [ناپاک …]، [بی‌]حرمتی […]، و از سرِ کینه

    4. Line 7

      sat-tuk-ku u₂-šab-ṭi-li u₂-la-(Restored by editors:) ap-pi-it pel₂-lu-de-e (Lost text:) … (Restored by editors:) iš-tak-ka-an qe₂-reb ma-ha-zi pa-la-ha {d}AMAR.UTU LUGAL DINGIR.MEŠ ig-mur kar-šu-uš-šu

      he brought sattukku-offering to a halt, int[erfered with pelludû-rites (and) est]ablished [...] inside cult-centers. Reverence for the god Marduk, the king of the gods, c[ame to an en]d in his mind.

      پیشکش‌های روزانه را بازداشت، [در آیین‌ها دست برد و …] را در درون شهرهای آیینی برقرار کرد. پروای مردوک، شاه خدایان، در دلش [به پایان رسید].

    5. Line 8

      le-mu-ut-ti URU-šu (Restored by editors:) i-te-ne₂-ep-pu-uš u₄-mi-ša-am-ma (Trace:) x x (Lost text:) … UN.MEŠ-šu₂ i-na ab-ša-a-ni la ta-ap-šu-uh₂-tim u₂-hal-li-iq kul-lat-si-in

      Daily, [he was pe]rforming evil deeds against his city (Babylon); ... [...] his [pe]ople, he brought ruin on all of them with an unrelenting yoke.

      هر روز به شهرِ او (بابل) بدی می‌کرد؛ … […] مردمانش را با یوغی بی‌امان، همه را، به نابودی کشاند.

  3. Lines 9-11

    The gods leave, Marduk relents

    خدایان می‌روند، مردوک نرم می‌شود

    Confidence: certaina duplicate copy holds the words, or the words are on the stone

    Certain for the sense (almost all on the clay). Marduk's epithet in line 10 is likely.

    • 134 signs on the cylinder
    • 0 restored from an ancient copy
    • 9 restored by editors
    Source of the restorations
    Editorial, from line 9 ("Enlil of the gods"). The restoration predates Finkel (in Cogan 2003 after Schaudig 2001; probably Berger 1975 or Schaudig 2001).

    What it tells us

    In 539 Nabonidus brought the statues of many gods into Babylon for safety, and the Chronicle records it. The cylinder turns this into an outrage that made Marduk take pity on the people. Almost all of this part is on the clay. Only Marduk's epithet in line 10 is restored, from line 9.

    در سال ۵۳۹ پ.م. نبونید پیکرهٔ بسیاری از خدایان را برای ایمنی به بابل آورد و گاه‌نامه این را ثبت کرده است؛ استوانه همین کار را گناهی می‌نماید که مردوک را به بخشایش مردم واداشت. تقریباً همهٔ این بخش بر گل مانده است و تنها لقب مردوک در سطر ۱۰ از روی سطر ۹ بازسازی شده است.

    Read the restored text: The gods leave, Marduk relents

    1. Line 9

      a-na ta-zi-im-ti-ši-na {d}EN.LIL₂ DINGIR.MEŠ ez-zi-iš i-gu-ug-ma (Lost text:) … ki-su-ur₂-šu-un DINGIR.MEŠ a-ši-ib lib₃-bi-šu-nu i-zi-bu at-ma-an-šu-un

      The Enlil of the gods became furiously angry at their complaints an[d ...] their territory. The gods living inside them abandoned their shrines,

      انلیلِ خدایان (مردوک) از ناله‌های آنان سخت خشمگین شد [و …] قلمرو آنان. خدایانی که در آن‌ها می‌زیستند، پرستشگاه‌هایشان را رها کردند،

    2. Line 10

      i-na ug-ga-ti-ša u₂-še-ri-bi a-na qe₂-reb šu-an-na{KI} {d}AMAR.UTU ti-(Restored by editors:) iz-qa-ru {d}EN.LIL₂ DINGIR.MEŠ us-sa-ah-ra a-na nap-har da-ad₂-mi ša in-na-du-u₂ šu-bat-su-un

      angry that he had made (them) enter Šuanna (Babylon). The god Marduk, the ex[alted one, the Enlil of the god]s, relented; [his] (hostile) attit[ude] changed towards all of the inhabited settlements whose dwellings were in ruins

      خشمگین از اینکه او (نبونید) (آنان را) به شوانّه (بابل) آورده بود. مردوک، [آن والا، انلیلِ خدای]ان، دل نرم کرد؛ [اندیشهٔ] (خشمگینِ) [او] به سوی همهٔ آبادی‌هایی که خانه‌هایشان ویران بود، بازگشت

    3. Line 11

      u₃ UN.MEŠ KUR-šu-me-ri u₃ URI{KI} ša i-mu-u₂ ša-lam-ta-aš₂ u₂-sa-ah-hi-ir ka-bat-(Restored by editors:) ta-aš₂ ir-ta-ši ta-a-a-ra kul-lat ma-ta-a-ta ka-li-ši-na i-hi-iṭ ib-re-e-ma

      and the people of the land of Sumer and Akkad who had become like corpses; he became forgiving. He (Marduk) inspected (and) examined all of the lands, everyone of them,

      و به سوی مردم سرزمین سومر و اکد که همچون مردگان شده بودند؛ و بر آنان بخشایش آورد. او (مردوک) همهٔ سرزمین‌ها را، یکایک، کاوید و نگریست

  4. Lines 24-26

    The peaceful entry and the "yoke"

    ورود آرام و «یوغ»

    Confidence: likelya fixed formula or a close parallel gives the words

    The restored signs are likely. The gap in line 25 and the sense of sarmašunu are open.

    • 120 signs on the cylinder
    • 0 restored from an ancient copy
    • 10 restored by editors
    Source of the restorations
    Editorial only (fixed formulas: "Sumer and Akkad", "my good deeds"). "[I abolished]" exists only in Oppenheim 1950 (ANET); no later editor restores it. The word sarmašunu (line 26) is on the clay but its sense is open: corvée (Schaudig 1995), service (Cogan 2003), bonds(?) (Finkel), burden(?) (van der Spek 2014), untranslated (Novotny).

    What it tells us

    Cyrus says his army entered Babylon in peace and that he lifted a "yoke", most likely forced building labour, from the citizens. No word on the clay says "I abolished": that verb is a restoration of 1950, and the key word of line 26 is still read as "corvée", "burden" or "bonds".

    کوروش می‌گوید سپاهش با آرامش به بابل درآمد و «یوغی»، به احتمال زیاد بیگاری ساختمانی، را از دوش شهروندان برداشت. هیچ واژه‌ای بر گل نمی‌گوید «برانداختم»؛ این فعل بازسازی سال ۱۹۵۰ است، و واژهٔ کلیدی سطر ۲۶ هنوز «بیگاری»، «بار» یا «بند» خوانده می‌شود.

    Read the restored text: The peaceful entry and the "yoke"

    1. Line 24

      um-ma-ni-ia rap-ša-tim i-na qe₂-reb TIN.TIR{KI} i-ša-ad-di-ha šu-ul-ma-niš nap-har KUR-(Restored by editors:) šu-me-ri u₃ URI{KI} mu-gal-li-tim ul u₂-šar-ši

      My widespread troops marched peacefully inside Babylon. I did not allow the whole of the lan[d of Sumer] and Akkad to have troublemakers.

      سپاهیان گسترده‌ام با آرامش در درون بابل گام برمی‌داشتند. نگذاشتم در همهٔ سرزمین [سومر] و اکد کسی آشوب کند.

    2. Line 25

      URU{KI} KA₂.DINGIR.RA{KI} u₃ kul-lat ma-ha-zi-šu i-na ša-li-im-tim aš₂-te-eʾ-e DUMU.MEŠ TIN.TIR(Restored by editors:) {KI} (Lost text:) … ša ki-ma la lib₃-(Restored by editors:) bi DINGIR-ma ab-ša₂-a-ni la si-ma-ti-šu₂-nu šu-ziz-zu

      I sought out the welfare of the city of Babylon and all of its shrines. (As for) the citizens of Babylon, [..., wh]o would have endured a yoke not befitting them if not for the wi[ll of go]d,

      آسایش شهر بابل و همهٔ پرستشگاه‌هایش را جستم. و اما شهروندان بابل، […] که برخلافِ خواستِ [خدا] یوغی ناشایست بر آنان نهاده بودند،

    3. Line 26

      an-hu-ut-su-un u₂-pa-aš₂-ši-ha u₂-ša-ap-ṭi-ir sa-ar-ma-šu-nu a-na ep-še-e-ti-(Restored by editors:) ia dam-qa-a-ti {d}AMAR.UTU EN GAL-u₂ ih-de-e-ma

      I allowed (them) to find rest for their exhaustion (and) I relieved (them) off their ... The god Marduk, the gre[a]t lord, was pleased with [my good] deeds and

      خستگی‌شان را آرامش دادم و از …شان رهایشان کردم. مردوک، سرور بزرگ، از کارهای [نیک من] شاد شد و

  5. Lines 27-29

    The blessing, and the tribute of the kings

    برکت، و باج شاهان

    Confidence: likelya fixed formula or a close parallel gives the words

    Likely (fixed formulas). Whether "at his exalted command" goes with Cyrus or with the kings is open.

    • 108 signs on the cylinder
    • 0 restored from an ancient copy
    • 17 restored by editors
    Source of the restorations
    Editorial only, from fixed formulas: ṣīt libbiya, ina qibītišu ṣirti, āšib nagî nesûti. The syntax of line 28 is open (Finkel older text and Novotny against Finkel later text, eBL and van der Spek 2014).

    What it tells us

    Marduk blesses Cyrus, his son Cambyses and the army, and the kings "from the Upper Sea to the Lower Sea" bring tribute. The broken words are standard phrases of earlier Assyrian royal texts, and the Chronicle confirms that Cambyses stood beside his father at the New Year rite of 538.

    مردوک کوروش، پسرش کمبوجیه و سپاه را برکت می‌دهد و شاهان «از دریای بالا تا دریای پایین» باج می‌آورند. واژه‌های شکسته عبارت‌های جاافتادهٔ کتیبه‌های شاهان آشوری پیشین‌اند، و گاه‌نامه تأیید می‌کند که کمبوجیه در آیین سال نو ۵۳۸ پ.م. در کنار پدرش بود.

    Read the restored text: The blessing, and the tribute of the kings

    1. Line 27

      a-na ia-a-ti {m}ku-ra-aš₂ LUGAL pa-li-ih-šu u₃ {m}ka-am-bu-zi-ia DUMU ṣi-it lib₃-bi-(Restored by editors:) ia u₃ a-na nap-har um-ma-ni-ia

      he kindly pronounced a blessing over me – Cyrus (II), the king who reveres him — and Cambyses (II) — the son, [my] offspring — [and] the entir[ety of] my army

      بر من، کوروش، شاهی که او را می‌پرستد، و بر کمبوجیه، پسرم، پارهٔ تنم، [و بر] همهٔ سپاهم

    2. Line 28

      da-am-qi₂-iš ik-ru-ub-ma i-na ša₂-lim-tim ma-har-ša ṭa-bi-iš ni-it-ta-(Restored by editors:) al-la-ak i-na qi₂-bi-ti-šu₂ ṣir-ti nap-har LUGAL a-ši-ib BARA₂.MEŠ

      so that we, [at his] exalted [command], could constantly walk about happily before him in good health. All of the kings who sit on (royal) daises,

      به نیکی برکت فرستاد، تا ما [به فرمانِ] والای او، با تندرستی و شادی در برابرش گام برداریم. همهٔ شاهانی که بر تخت نشسته‌اند،

    3. Line 29

      ša ka-li-iš kib-ra-a-ta iš-tu tam-tim e-li-tim a-di tam-tim šap-li-tim a-ši-ib na-(Restored by editors:) gi-i ne₂-su-tim LUGAL.MEŠ KUR a-mur-ri-i a-ši-ib kuš-ta-ri ka-li-šu₂-un

      from every quarter (of the world), from the Upper Sea to the Lower Sea, those who live in [remote] re[gions], (and) the kings of the land of Amurru who live in tents, everyone of them,

      از همهٔ گوشه‌های (جهان)، از دریای بالا تا دریای پایین، آنان که در [سرزمین‌های دوردست] می‌زیند، و همهٔ شاهان سرزمین اَمورو که در چادر می‌زیند،

  6. Lines 30-31

    The return of the gods and of the peoples

    بازگرداندن خدایان و مردمان

    Confidence: openthe words are lost, or the editors read them differently

    The place names are on the clay (certain). The first word of the list is open.

    • 90 signs on the cylinder
    • 0 restored from an ancient copy
    • 4 restored by editors
    Source of the restorations
    Editorial. "[Šuanna]" (Finkel, Novotny; "[Babylon]" van der Spek 2014) against "[Nineveh?]" (Schaudig 2019, via Tiemeyer 2024). "[e]" of ebertu is near certain.

    What it tells us

    Cyrus sent home the gods of cities east of the Tigris and the gods of Babylonian towns that Nabonidus had gathered in Babylon. The Chronicle dates the second return to December 539 to March 538. The text names no Jews and no Jerusalem, and its first word, "[from Babylon]", is a restoration that one editor reads "[from Nineveh?]".

    کوروش خدایان شهرهای آن سوی دجله و خدایان شهرهای بابلی را که نبونید در بابل گرد آورده بود به جای خود بازگرداند؛ گاه‌نامه بازگشت گروه دوم را میان دسامبر ۵۳۹ و مارس ۵۳۸ پ.م. می‌گذارد. متن نامی از یهودیان و اورشلیم نمی‌برد، و نخستین واژهٔ فهرست، «[از بابل]»، بازسازی است که یک ویراستار آن را «[از نینوا؟]» می‌خواند.

    Read the restored text: The return of the gods and of the peoples

    1. Line 30

      bi-lat-su-nu ka-bi-it-tim u₂-bi-lu-nim-ma qe₂-er-ba šu-an-na{KI} u₂-na-aš₂-ši-qu še-pu-u₂-a iš-tu (Restored by editors:) šu-an-na{KI} a-di {URU}aš-šur{KI} u₃ MUŠ₃.EREN{KI}

      brought their substantial tribute inside Šuanna (Babylon) (and) kissed my feet. From [Šuanna (Babylon)] to Aššur and Susa,

      باجِ سنگینِ خود را به شوانّه (بابل) آوردند و پاهایم را بوسیدند. از [شوانّه (بابل)] تا آشور و شوش،

    2. Line 31

      a-ka₃-de₃{KI} {KUR}eš₃-nu-nak {URU}za-am-ba-an {URU}me-tur₂-nu BAD₃.DINGIR{KI} a-di pa-aṭ {KUR}qu-ti-i ma-ha-za (Restored by editors:) e-ber-ti {ID₂}IDIGNA ša iš-tu pa-na-ma na-du-u₂ šu-bat-su-un

      Agade, Ešnunna, Zabbān, Mê-Turān, Dēr, as far as the border of the land of the Gutians, (and) cult-centers on the opposite side of the Tigris River whose dwellings had previous been in ruins —

      اکد، اِشنونا، زَمبان، مه‌تورنو، دِر، تا مرز سرزمین گوتی، و شهرهای آیینیِ آن سوی دجله که خانه‌هایشان از دیرباز ویران بود،

  7. Lines 36-37

    The end of the gods' prayer, and the bird offerings

    پایان دعای خدایان، و قربانی پرندگان

    Confidence: certaina duplicate copy holds the words, or the words are on the stone

    Line 36 certain (a duplicate copy holds it), except its first words (open). The start of line 37 is likely in sense, open in its words.

    • 64 signs on the cylinder
    • 8 restored from an ancient copy
    • 5 restored by editors
    Ancient copy
    BM 47176
    Source of the restorations
    Line 36: the tablet copy BM 47176 line 5' (identified by W. G. Lambert, 2009-2010; Finkel 2013). SUD only half on the tablet, the last MEŠ editorial. Line 37: the tablet holds only traces; [KUR] from the same word later in the line; the gap at the start is editorial (the number of geese).

    What it tells us

    The returned gods pray that Cyrus and Cambyses "be the provisioners of our shrines until distant days". A clay tablet copy identified in 2009-2010 holds these words. Then Cyrus boasts that he added geese, ducks and doves to the daily offerings, an answer to the charge that Nabonidus had stopped them.

    خدایان بازگشته دعا می‌کنند که کوروش و کمبوجیه «تا روزهای دور روزی‌رسان پرستشگاه‌های ما باشند»؛ لوحی گلی که در ۲۰۰۹ تا ۲۰۱۰ شناسایی شد این واژه‌ها را نگه داشته است. سپس کوروش می‌بالد که غاز، اردک و کبوتر بر قربانی‌های روزانه افزود، پاسخی به این اتهام که نبونید قربانی‌ها را بازداشته بود.

    Read the restored text: The end of the gods' prayer, and the bird offerings

    1. Line 36

      ku (Trace:) x (Restored by editors:) x x x ib šu-nu lu-u₂ za-ni-ni (Trace:) x-x-x (Restored from an ancient copy:) BARA₂-i-ni a-na UD.MEŠ SU₃.(Restored by editors:) MEŠ (Lost text:) … u₃ UN.MEŠ TIN.TIR{KI} ik-tar-ra-bu LUGAL-u₂-tu KUR.KUR ka-li-ši-na šu-ub-ti ne₂-eh-tim u₂-še-ši-ib

      [...] may they be the ones who provision our shrines until distant days.” Also, the people of Babylon blessed (my) kingship. I allowed the lands, all of them, to live undisturbed.

      […] باشد که آنان تا روزگاران دور روزی‌رسانِ پرستشگاه‌های ما باشند.» و مردم بابل پادشاهی (مرا) ستودند. همهٔ سرزمین‌ها را در آرامش نشاندم.

    2. Line 37

      (Lost text:) … (Restored by editors:) KUR.GI{MUŠEN} 2 UZ.TUR{MUŠEN} u₃ 10 TU.GUR₄{MUŠEN}.MEŠ e-li KUR.GI{MUŠEN} UZ.TUR{MUŠEN}.MEŠ u₃ TU.GUR₄{MUŠEN}.MEŠ

      Daily, I lavishly provided [... ge]ese, two ducks, and ten pigeons, more than the geese, ducks, and pigeons [...].

      [… غا]ز، دو اردک و ده کبوتر، بیش از غازها، اردک‌ها و کبوترهای [پیشین …] هر روز به فراوانی پیشکش کردم.

  8. Lines 38-42

    The building work on the walls of Babylon

    کار ساختمانی بر باروهای بابل

    Confidence: likelya fixed formula or a close parallel gives the words

    Likely (fixed formulas and close parallels). Whose troops in line 40, which outer work, and which previous king are open.

    • 115 signs on the cylinder
    • 0 restored from an ancient copy
    • 47 restored by editors
    Source of the restorations
    Editorial only (the tablet BM 47134 holds two traces of line 42). Near word-for-word models on Oracc: Ashurbanipal 241 (L6) lines 19-20 (line 38), Nabopolassar 1 lines 12-15 (line 40), Nabonidus 28 iii 5 (line 41), Nebuchadnezzar II 2 ix 9-16 (line 42). Most signs on the stone are on the Yale fragment NBC 2504 (Walker 1972, Berger 1975).

    What it tells us

    Like every king of Babylon before him, Cyrus reports work on Imgur-Enlil, the great city wall, the brick quay of the moat and cedar doors clad in bronze. No ancient copy holds the gaps, but the editors filled them from almost identical sentences of Nabopolassar, Nebuchadnezzar and Ashurbanipal.

    کوروش، مانند همهٔ شاهان پیشین بابل، از کار بر ایمگور-اِنلیل، بارهٔ بزرگ شهر، اسکلهٔ آجری خندق و درهای سدر با روکش مفرغ گزارش می‌دهد. هیچ رونوشت کهنی این افتادگی‌ها را ندارد، اما ویراستاران آن‌ها را از جمله‌های تقریباً یکسانِ نبوپولسر، نبوکدنصر و آشوربانیپال پر کرده‌اند.

    Read the restored text: The building work on the walls of Babylon

    1. Line 38

      (Lost text:) … (Restored by editors:) u₄-mi-šam u₂-ṭa-ah-hi-id {BAD₃}im-gur-{d}EN.LIL₂ BAD₃ GAL-a ša TIN.TIR{KI} (Restored by editors:) ma-aṣ-ṣar-ta-šu₂ du-un-nu-num aš₂-te-eʾ-e-ma

      (As for) the wall Imgur-Enlil, the great wall of Babylon, I sought to strengthen its [defen]ses and

      و اما دیوار ایمگور‌انلیل، دیوار بزرگ بابل: در پیِ استوار کردنِ [باروها]یش برآمدم و

    2. Line 39

      (Lost text:) … ka-a-ri a-gur-ru ša₂ GU₂ ha-ri-ṣi ša LUGAL mah-ri i-pu-(Restored by editors:) šu-ma la u₂-šak-li-lu ši-pi-ir-šu

      [...] the quay (made) of baked brick on the bank of the moat that a previous king had bu[ilt, but not com]pleted, [I ...] its construction.

      […] اسکله‌ای از آجر پخته بر کنارهٔ خندق، که شاهی پیشین ساخته [ولی به پایان نر]سانده بود، [من …] کارش را.

    3. Line 40

      (Lost text:) … (Restored by editors:) la u₂-ša-as-hi-ru URU a-na ki-da-a-ni ša LUGAL ma-ah-ra la i-pu-šu um-man-ni-šu di-ku-ut (Restored by editors:) ma-ti-šu i-na qe₂-reb šu-an-na{KI}

      [(As for) ..., which did not surround the city] on the outside, which no previous king had built, his troops, the lev[y of his land, in]to Šuanna (Babylon) [...]

      [و اما …، که شهر را] از بیرون [در بر نمی‌گرفت]، که هیچ شاه پیشینی نساخته بود، با سپاهیانش، بیگاریانِ [سرزمینش، در] شوانّه (بابل) […]

    4. Line 41

      (Lost text:) … (Restored by editors:) i-na ESIR.UD.DU.A u₃ SIG₄.AL.UR₃.RA eš-ši-iš e-pu-uš-ma (Restored by editors:) u₂-šak-lil ši-pir-ši-in

      I built anew with bitumen and baked brick and [completed the]ir [construction].

      […] با قیر و آجر پخته از نو ساختم و [ساختِ آن‌ها را به پایان رساندم].

    5. Line 42

      (Lost text:) … (Restored by editors:) {GIŠ}IG.MEŠ {GIŠ}EREN MAH.MEŠ ta-ah-lu-up-ti₃ ZABAR as-ku-up-pu u₃ nu-ku-še-(Restored by editors:) e pi-ti-iq e-ri-i e-ma KA₂.MEŠ-ši-na

      [... tall doors of cedar] covered with bronze. [Wherever th]eir [gates were, I installed] thresholds and fittin[gs of cast copper].

      [… درهای بلند از چوب سدر] با روکش مفرغ. [هر جا که دروازه‌های]شان [بود، آستانه‌ها و چفت‌وبست‌هایی از مسِ ریخته‌گری‌شده نهادم].

  9. Lines 43-44

    The inscription of Ashurbanipal

    کتیبهٔ آشوربانیپال

    Confidence: likelya fixed formula or a close parallel gives the words

    The name is certain (on the stone and on the tablet). "I saw it inside" and "to its place" are likely.

    • 23 signs on the cylinder
    • 6 restored from an ancient copy
    • 18 restored by editors
    Ancient copy
    BM 47134
    Source of the restorations
    Editorial, from Nabonidus 1 ii 5-6 and Nabonidus 28 ii 46 (Schaudig 2001, p. 554, "based on collation", via Michalowski 2014). The tablet BM 47134 rev. 2'-3' confirms the name and "[... its pla]ce".

    What it tells us

    In the wall the workmen found an inscription of the Assyrian king Ashurbanipal, and Cyrus says that he put it back in its place, as Ashurbanipal's own text asked a later king to do. The name is on the clay; "I saw it inside" and "to its place" follow exact formulas of Nabonidus.

    کارگران در دیوار کتیبه‌ای از آشوربانیپال، شاه آشور، یافتند و کوروش می‌گوید آن را به جای خود بازگرداند، همان‌گونه که متن خود آشوربانیپال از شاهان آینده خواسته بود. نام بر گل است؛ «آن را درون آن دیدم» و «به جایش» از عبارت‌های دقیق نبونید پیروی می‌کنند.

    Read the restored text: The inscription of Ashurbanipal

    1. Line 43

      (Restored by editors:) u₂-rat-ta-a (Lost text:) … ši-ṭi-ir šu-mu ša₂ {m}AN.ŠAR₂-DU₃-IBILA LUGAL a-lik mah-ri-(Restored by editors:) ia ša₂ qer-ba-šu ap-pa-al-sa

      [... I saw a ... wr]itten in the name of Ashurbanipal, a king who came before [me, that (had been deposited) inside it. ...]

      [… دیدم نوشته‌ای … ] به نام آشوربانیپال، شاهی که پیش از [من بود، که در درون آن نهاده بودند …]

    2. Line 44

      (Lost text:) … (Restored by editors:) a-na aš₂-(Restored from an ancient copy:) ri-šu₂ {d}AMAR.UTU EN GAL ba-(Restored from an ancient copy:) laṭ (Restored by editors:) UD.MEŠ u₃-ti₃ (Restored by editors:) SU₃.MEŠ

      [... to] its [plac]e. O Marduk, the great lord, [grant me] a lif[e (lasting until) distant days,

      [… به جای]ش [بازگرداندم]. ای مردوک، سرور بزرگ، [به من ببخش] زندگی[ای تا روزگاران دور،

  10. Lines 44-45

    The closing prayer to Marduk

    دعای پایانی به مردوک

    Confidence: likelya fixed formula or a close parallel gives the words

    Likely (a fixed formula and a partial duplicate). The clause "and may I ... in your heart" is open.

    • 9 signs on the cylinder
    • 18 restored from an ancient copy
    • 33 restored by editors
    Ancient copy
    BM 47134
    Source of the restorations
    The tablet copy BM 47134 rev. 3'-5' (Marduk the great lord, "as a gift", "your heart"). The rest is editorial, from the prayer of Nebuchadnezzar II 35 ii 13-21, almost word for word. The cylinder spells "distant days" in syllables (u₄-um re-e-qu₂-u₃-ti₃, eBL).

    What it tells us

    The text ends with a prayer to Marduk for a long life, old age, a firm throne and a long reign. Only "for ever" survives on the cylinder. A tablet copy and a prayer that Nebuchadnezzar used almost word for word give the rest.

    متن با دعایی به مردوک برای عمر دراز، پیری، تخت استوار و فرمانروایی پایدار پایان می‌یابد. بر استوانه تنها «تا همیشه» مانده است؛ باقی را یک لوح رونوشت و دعایی می‌دهند که نبوکدنصر تقریباً واژه به واژه به کار برده بود.

    Read the restored text: The closing prayer to Marduk

    1. Line 44

      (Lost text:) … (Restored by editors:) a-na aš₂-(Restored from an ancient copy:) ri-šu₂ {d}AMAR.UTU EN GAL ba-(Restored from an ancient copy:) laṭ (Restored by editors:) UD.MEŠ u₃-ti₃ (Restored by editors:) SU₃.MEŠ

      [... to] its [plac]e. O Marduk, the great lord, [grant me] a lif[e (lasting until) distant days,

      [… به جای]ش [بازگرداندم]. ای مردوک، سرور بزرگ، [به من ببخش] زندگی[ای تا روزگاران دور،

    2. Line 45

      (Restored by editors:) še-be₂-e li-it-tu-u₂-ti ku-un {GIŠ}GU.ZA u₃ la-bar pa-le-(Restored from an ancient copy:) e a-na ši-ri-ik-tim (Restored by editors:) šu-ur₂-kam u₃ a-na-ku-ma (Lost text:) … (Restored from an ancient copy:) lib₃-bi-ka a-na da-ri₂-a-tim

      the attainment of very old age, the securing of (my) throne, and the prolongation of (my) reig]n as a gif[t. Furthermore, may I ... in] your heart for ever.

      پیری کامل، تختی استوار و فرمانروایی دیرپا] را چون هدیه[ای. و باشد که من … در] دلِ تو تا جاودان.

  11. Line 46

    The colophon of the tablet copy (not on the cylinder)

    انجامهٔ لوح رونوشت (نه بر استوانه)

    Confidence: certaina duplicate copy holds the words, or the words are on the stone

    The name and "checked" are certain (on the tablet). The source of the copy is open.

    • 0 signs on the cylinder
    • 10 restored from an ancient copy
    • 4 restored by editors
    Source of the restorations
    The tablet BM 47134 rev. 6'. The formula "written and collated" is editorial (standard colophon form). Schaudig 2019 restores "[according to an inscription of Cyrus king of Babylon]". Finkel 2013 offers Iqīš-Marduk as an alternative name; Yeranin 2023 argues for Qīšti-Marduk.

    What it tells us

    This line is not on the cylinder: it is the signature of a scribe, Qīšti-Marduk, at the end of a clay tablet that copied the text. It shows that the words of Cyrus were copied, checked and passed on among the few who could read cuneiform.

    این سطر بر استوانه نیست؛ امضای کاتبی به نام قیشتی‌مردوک در پایان لوحی گلی است که متن را رونویسی کرده بود. نشان می‌دهد که سخنان کوروش رونویسی و بازبینی شد و در میان شمار اندکی که خط میخی می‌خواندند دست به دست گشت.

    Read the restored text: The colophon of the tablet copy (not on the cylinder)

    1. Line 46

      This line is on the tablet copy only, not on the cylinder.

      (Restored by editors:) ki KA (Lost text:) … (Restored by editors:) ša₂-ṭir (Restored from an ancient copy:) ba-ar IM {m}NIG₂.BA-{d}AMAR.UTU A (Lost text:) …

      (Colophon) [Written and co]llated [from a ...]. Tablet of Qīšti-Marduk, son of [...].

      (انجامه) [نوشته و با …] سنجیده شد. لوحِ قیشتی‌مردوک، پسرِ […].

  • Translation by Jamie Novotny, ARIo (Oracc), adapted from I. Finkel 2013, CC BY-SA 3.0, the Cyrus Cylinder (Q006653), Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions online (ARIo), Oracc
  • Persian B of cylinder-text-fa.md (our translation, needs a human review), CC BY-SA 4.0
  • our gloss: the insight sentences in Persian are our own, written for this file, and need a human review
  • Data: CC BY-SA 4.0 (ShareAlike of the Oracc text and translation, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Further reading

The bibliography

The 27 works that the British Museum lists for the cylinder, ranked A to D. A link opens the record of a work, or a free copy.

A
peer reviewed and current.
B
peer reviewed (or a scholarly edition), but superseded on a point. The section names the point and the later work.
C
museum or scholarly, not refereed. This includes the current reference edition, Finkel (ed.) 2013, because its external refereeing is not documented. It also includes the ARIo edition.
D
popular.
The works, from rank A to rank D
RankWorkPeer reviewedLinks
AWalker 1972a, A recently identified fragment of the Cyrus Cylinderpp. 158-159 · Iran 10, British Institute of Persian StudiesYes
DOI 10.2307/4300475No, paywalled (JSTOR)
AKuhrt A 1983a, The Cyrus Cylinder and Achaemenid Imperial Policypp. 83-97 · Journal for the Study of the Old Testament 25, SAGEYes
DOI 10.1177/030908928300802507No, paywalled
AKuhrt A 1988a, The Achaemenid Empire: a Babylonian perspectivepp. 60-76 · Proceedings of the Cambridge Philological Society 34, CUPYes
DOI 10.1017/S0068673500005058No, paywalled
Bno Yale piece, superseded by Berger 1975 and Schaudig 2001Weissbach 1911a, Die Keilinschriften der Achämenidenp. 2 ff. · Scholarly edition, Vorderasiatische Bibliothek 3, HinrichsEdited series, refereeing not documented
free copy at archive.org: Weissbach 1911a, Die Keilinschriften der Achämeniden
Bno link to CyrusNies J B & Keiser C E 1920a, Historical, Religious and Economic Texts and Antiquitiesno. 32 · Text edition, BIN II, Yale University PressUniversity press edition
Historical, Religious and Economic Texts and Antiquities (BIN II), free copy at archive.org
Blines 3, 16, 25; no lines 36-45Pritchard 1950a, Ancient Near Eastern Texts relating to the Old Testamentpp. 315-16 (Oppenheim) · Reference work, Princeton University PressYes
DOI 10.1515/9781400882762(3rd ed.)No (archive.org lending only). A reprint with Princeton's permission is at people.bethel.edu
Bwritten before the Yale join was known; "edict"Harmatta J 1971a, The literary patterns of the Babylonian edict of Cyruspp. 217-231 · Acta Antiqua Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 19, Akadémiai KiadóYes (academy journal)
REAL 171664free copy at REAL, the repository of the Library of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences: Harmatta J 1971a, The literary patterns of the Babylonian edict of Cyrus
Bas 9Harmatta J 1974a, Les modèles littéraires de l'édit babylonien de Cyruspp. 29-44 · Acta Iranica 1, BrillYes (chapter)
DOI 10.1163/9789004672024_007No, paywalled
Bno tablet copy, superseded by Schaudig 2001 and Finkel 2013Berger 1975a, Der Kyros-Zylinder mit dem Zusatzfragment BIN II Nr. 32 ...pp. 192-234 · Zeitschrift für Assyriologie 64, de GruyterYes
DOI 10.1515/zava.1975.64.2.192(a duplicate DOI with 1974 exists)No, paywalled
Bbefore the tablet copy, Finkel 2013Chavalas M W 2006a, The Ancient Near East (Michalowski)pp. 426-30 · Edited sourcebook, BlackwellYes
ISBN 0631235809No
CRawlinson H C & Pinches T G 1884a, The cuneiform inscriptions of Western Asia, Vno. 35, first publication · Text edition (copies), British Museum TrusteesNo
The Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia, vol. V, free copy at archive.org
CRassam H 1897a, Asshur and the Land of Nimrodp. 267 · Memoir, Curts & JenningsNo
free copy at archive.org: Rassam H 1897a, Asshur and the Land of Nimrod
CGuide 1900a, A Guide to the Babylonian and Assyrian Antiquitiesp. 172, photograph · Museum guide, British MuseumNo
free copy at archive.org: Guide 1900a, A Guide to the Babylonian and Assyrian Antiquities
CPinder-Wilson 1971a, Royal Persiano. 18 · Exhibition catalogue, British MuseumNo
ISBN 0714100285No
CGrayson & Redford 1973, Papyrus and Tabletpp. 124-26 · Textbook, Prentice-HallNo
ISBN 0136483860No
CMitchell 1988, The Bible in the British Museumno. 44, p. 83 · Museum book, British Museum PublicationsNo
ISBN 0714111554No (archive.org lending only)
Cused only for a plateWiesehofer J 1996a, Ancient Persia from 550 BC to 650 ADpl. XIb · Academic monograph, I.B. TaurisRefereeing not documented
ISBN 1850439990No
CCurtis 1997a, Mesopotamia and Iran in the Persian Periodpl. 11 · Edited proceedings, British Museum PressRefereeing not documented
ISBN 0714111422No
CAllen 2005a, The Persian Empire: A Historyp. 26 · Museum history for a general reader, British Museum PressNo
ISBN 0714111546No (archive.org lending only)
CCurtis & Tallis 2005, Forgotten Empirecat. 6, p. 59 · Exhibition catalogue, British Museum PressNo
ISBN 0714111570No
Cthe current reference editionFinkel 2013a, The Cyrus Cylinder: The King of Persia's Proclamation from Ancient Babylonwhole volume · Edited volume, I.B. TaurisRefereeing not documented
DOI 10.5040/9780755623570ISBN 9781780760636No, paywalled
CSimpson St J 2013a, The Cyrus Cylinder: display and replicapp. 69-84 · Chapter 3 of entry 24As 24
DOI 10.5040/9780755623570.ch-003No, paywalled
Ccite van der Spek 2014 insteadvan der Spek R J 1982, Did Cyrus the Great introduce a new policy towards subdued nations? (cited in the comments)pp. 278-83 · Persica 10, Genootschap Nederland-IranRefereeing not documented (a lecture summary)
KeiBi KEI00067228No
CStewart (ed.) 2013, The Everlasting Flame (cited in the comments)p. 118, cat. 66 · Exhibition catalogue, I.B. Tauris with SOASNo
DOI 10.5040/9780755624096No, paywalled
DHabershon A R 1909a, The Bible and the British Museumpp. 77-81 · Popular bookNo
free copy at archive.org: Habershon A R 1909a, The Bible and the British Museum
DCurtis 1993a, Persian Mythsp. 55 · Popular series, British Museum PressNo
ISBN 0714120820No
Dflag: publisher and edition not confirmed. Its Persepolis photo shows a plaster cast, per the BM recordGhias Abadi 2001a, Cylinder of CyrusPopular book, TehranNo
none foundNo

Source: The Cyrus Cylinder, The British Museum, the record of the museum, read on 2026-10-07. The ranks are from our research.

The field

How much is written

Nobody can read all the work on the Achaemenids. These numbers are search counts, not titles that a person read.

  • About5,300

    scholarly works name the Achaemenids in the title or the abstract

  • About90

    works name the Cyrus Cylinder in the title or the abstract

  • 59 %

    of the scholarly works are behind a paywall

  • About5.5 years

    of full-time reading, before one ancient text

Search counts from OpenAlex, a free catalog of research, and our estimate of the reading time, read on 2026-10-07.

Thus a page that relates the texts, the objects, the history and the script, and that ranks each source by its distance from the events, fills a real gap. The people that wrote the literature are scattered in at least seven languages, the objects in at least eight countries, and about 60 percent of the scholarly work is behind a paywall.

Credits

The credits of the texts

Each text and each image source of this page has an open license. This list gives the source, the author and the license.

The text of the cylinder

Our research data

  • The sources, the gaps, the bibliography and the counts of this page, from our research of 2026-10-07, CC BY-SA 4.0 (ShareAlike of the Oracc text and translation, CC BY-SA 3.0)

The hand copies and the scan