Old Persian, 550 to 330 BC
Khat-e Mikhi خط میخی
The nail script of the Persian kings. Read the story of the empire, then learn the 36 signs and write your name.
History
The Achaemenid Empire
Cyrus II, "the Great", made the first Persian empire in the 6th century BC. At its height it went from Egypt and the Aegean Sea to the Indus valley.
The dynasty takes its name from Achaemenes, an ancestor of its kings. Cyrus united the Persians and the Medes, then took Lydia and Babylon.
Darius I put the empire in order. Governors, the satraps, ruled its lands, and he built roads and new royal centers at Susa and Persepolis.
The empire held many peoples, languages and religions. Its kings wrote their official texts in three or more languages, often side by side.
Alexander of Macedon defeated Darius III, and the empire ended in 330 BC.
- 550/549 BCThe army of Astyages, the king of the Medes, rebels and hands him over to Cyrus.
- c. 547 BCCyrus takes Sardis and the kingdom of Lydia. The year is not sure.
- 539 BCCyrus enters Babylon without a battle.
- 522 BCDarius I takes the throne.
- c. 518 BCWork starts on the terrace of Persepolis.
- 330 BCAlexander takes Persepolis, and his own men kill Darius III.
The script
Khat-e Mikhi, the nail script
Khat-e mikhi means "the nail script", the Persian name for cuneiform. Old Persian cuneiform is a small script: 36 sound signs, a few word signs, a word divider and the numbers. It reads from left to right.
Each sound sign is a vowel, or a consonant with a vowel. The script looks like the older cuneiform of Mesopotamia, but its signs are new and much simpler.
Most scholars think that the script was made in the time of Darius I, for the royal inscriptions. It was for display, on rock, on palace walls, on vases and on weights. The scribes wrote their daily records in Elamite and Aramaic.
Eight signs stand for a whole word, such as "king", "country", "god" and the name of the god Ahuramazda.
- Sound signs
- 36
- Word signs
- 8
- Direction
- Left to right
- Unicode block
- U+103A0 to U+103DF
- a
- i
- u
- ka
- ta
- pa
- ma
- ra
- king
- divider
How it was read again
- 1778Niebuhr publishes exact copies of the inscriptions of Persepolis. They show that the script reads from left to right.
- 1798Tychsen sees that one slanted wedge divides the words.
- 1802Münter shows that the texts belong to the Achaemenid kings.
- 1802Georg Friedrich Grotefend takes the titles of the later Sasanian kings as his model: "X, king, son of Y, king". He finds the word "king", then the names Darius, Xerxes and Hystaspes, and reads about ten signs.
- 1826Rask reads the signs n and m, in the word ending -ānām.
- 1836Burnouf and Lassen read more words, because they compare them with Avestan.
- 1845Lassen shows that a consonant sign also holds a vowel, as in the scripts of India.
- 1846-47Henry Rawlinson publishes the full Old Persian text of Behistun, with a translation. He copied it from ropes on the cliff.
- 1851Oppert finds the last sign, l. It writes four foreign names, such as Lebanon.
Inscriptions and tablets
Where the script survives
Old Persian lives on in a few hundred lines of royal text, cut in rock, carved on palace walls and written on tablets of gold, silver and clay.
Behistun
Darius I tells how he took the throne and defeated the rebels. The text and a relief sit high on a cliff. It is the longest Old Persian text, and its Old Persian version was cut last, after the Elamite and the Babylonian.
Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian
Persepolis
Darius, Xerxes and later kings put their names and their words on the gates, the stairs and the palaces. Two gold and two silver foundation tablets of Darius lay in a stone box under a corner of the Apadana.
Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian
Naqsh-e Rustam
The tomb of Darius I is cut into the rock face. Its inscriptions name the lands of the empire and the values of the king.
Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian
Ganjnameh
Two panels, one of Darius I and one of Xerxes, praise Ahuramazda. They are short, thus they make a good first text to read.
Old Persian, Elamite, Babylonian
The Persepolis tablets
Thousands of clay tablets record food, wages and travel in the royal economy. Almost all are in Elamite, and only one is in Old Persian.
Mostly Elamite, some Aramaic
Learn
Learn to read it
Old Persian is a good first cuneiform. It has 36 sound signs, and one sign has one sound. Learn it in four steps, with real lines of the kings from the start.
Signs. Learn the signs in families, a few at a time, and not as 36 separate shapes.
Words. A divider stands between two words, thus you find each word with no help.
Sentences. Many royal texts open with the same formula: "I am Darius, the great king, king of kings".
Reading. Read a real line of an inscription, then write your own name in cuneiform.
The signs
Every sign of the script, with its sound.
- aU+103A0
- iU+103A1
- uU+103A2
- kaARIo kU+103A3
- kuU+103A4
- gaARIo gU+103A5
- guU+103A6
- xaARIo xU+103A7
- caARIo cU+103A8
- jaARIo jU+103A9
- jiU+103AA
- taARIo tU+103AB
- tuU+103AC
- daARIo dU+103AD
- diU+103AE
- duU+103AF
- θaARIo θU+103B0
- paARIo pU+103B1
- baARIo bU+103B2
- faARIo fU+103B3
- naARIo nU+103B4
- nuU+103B5
- maARIo mU+103B6
- miU+103B7
- muU+103B8
- yaARIo yU+103B9
- vaARIo vU+103BA
- viU+103BB
- raARIo rU+103BC
- ruU+103BD
- laARIo lU+103BE
- saARIo sU+103BF
- zaARIo zU+103C0
- šaARIo šU+103C1
- çaARIo çU+103C2
- haARIo hU+103C3
- AM1ARIo AMAhuramazda, the great godU+103C8
- AM2ARIo AM₂Ahuramazda (second form)U+103C9
- AMhaof AhuramazdaU+103CA
- XŠkingU+103CB
- DH1ARIo DHcountry, landU+103CC
- DH2ARIo DH₂country, land (second form)U+103CD
- BGgodU+103CE
- BUearthU+103CF
- :U+103D0
- 1U+103D1
- 2U+103D2
- 10U+103D3
- 20U+103D4
- 100U+103D5
Which sign is it?
Read the sound, then pick its sign from four. The wrong choices look like the right one.
Which sign iska?
Keys: 1 to 4 pick a choice, the arrows move between the choices, N goes to the next sign.
The vowel grid
Each consonant takes the vowel a, i or u, but not every pair has its own sign. Put each sign in its cell, and see which pairs are missing.
0 of 36 placed
| a | i | u | |
|---|---|---|---|
| vowel alone | |||
| k | |||
| g | |||
| x | |||
| c | |||
| j | |||
| t | |||
| d | |||
| θ | |||
| p | |||
| b | |||
| f | |||
| n | |||
| m | |||
| y | |||
| v | |||
| r | |||
| l | |||
| s | |||
| z | |||
| š | |||
| ç | |||
| h |
Keys: Enter picks a sign, then the arrows move in the grid and Enter places the sign.
Build a word
Read the word, then put its signs in order, from left to right. Three tiles do not belong.
Word 1 of 6 · 0 built
Cyrus
Kuruš
Keys: Enter picks a tile, then the arrows move between the slots and Enter puts the tile in.
Flashcards
Learn the signs one card at a time.
Card 1 of 360 seen
Keys: the left and right arrows move, F or the space bar flips the card.
Write your name
Type your name, see it in Old Persian cuneiform, and hear it read out loud.
- ku
- u
- ru
- u
- ša
Kuruš
- Cyrus is Kuruš in the Old Persian inscriptions. This is the spelling of the kings.
Type in cuneiform
Tap the signs to write a word, then copy it into any app.
iOS has no Old Persian keyboard, but it shows the signs. Write here, then copy into any app.
Vowels
Syllables
Numbers
Word signs
Resources
Read more
Free sources to go further, from the museum that holds the cylinder to the full texts of the inscriptions.
Two older editions are in the public domain: Kent, Old Persian (1953), and the books of Tolman (1892 to 1910). Kent is free in the US, because nobody renewed its copyright. Kent died in 1952, thus his own text is also free where the term is life plus 70 years.
- The British MuseumThe Cyrus Cylinder, The British MuseumThe record of the museum that holds the cylinder: its size, its history, its photos and three translations.All rights reserved. Link only. The photos are CC BY-NC-SA 4.0
- Royal Inscriptions of Babylonia online (RIBo), OraccCyrus II 01, the Cyrus Cylinder (Q006653), Royal Inscriptions of Babylonia online (RIBo), OraccThe Akkadian text of the cylinder, line by line, with the English translation that this page quotes.CC BY-SA 3.0
- OraccAchaemenid Royal Inscriptions online (ARIo), OraccThe texts of the royal inscriptions in each language, with transliterations, a glossary and English translations.CC BY-SA 3.0. The JSON data is CC0
- Encyclopaedia IranicaCuneiform Script, Encyclopaedia IranicaRüdiger Schmitt on the Old Persian script: its signs, its spelling rules, its origin and its decipherment.All rights reserved. Link only
- Encyclopaedia IranicaBisotun iii. Darius's Inscriptions, Encyclopaedia IranicaRüdiger Schmitt on the Behistun texts in their three languages, and on how they were copied and read.All rights reserved. Link only
- Encyclopaedia IranicaCyrus iv. The Cyrus Cylinder, Encyclopaedia IranicaMuhammad A. Dandamayev on the cylinder and its text.All rights reserved. Link only
- Prods Oktor Skjærvø, 2016An Introduction to Old Persian, free copy at the Wayback MachineA free textbook in 20 lessons, with the full grammar. The next step after this page. A copy on the Wayback Machine.© 2016 P. O. Skjærvø. Link only
- H. C. Rawlinson and T. G. Pinches, 1880 to 1884The Cuneiform Inscriptions of Western Asia, vol. V, free copy at archive.orgThe first publication of the cylinder: a hand copy of its signs on plate 35.Public domain
Credits
Sources and licenses
Every text, image and font on this page has an open license. This list gives each source, its author and its license.
Texts
- Cyrus II 01, the Cyrus Cylinder (Q006653), Royal Inscriptions of Babylonia online (RIBo), Oracc, Translated by Jamie Novotny, adapted from I. Finkel 2013. Lemmatized by Alexa Bartelmus and Bastian Still, license CC BY-SA 3.0
- CMa, Pasargadae (Q007131), Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions online (ARIo), Oracc, Lines 1-2, after Schmitt 2009, license CC BY-SA 3.0
- The words and the phrases of the learning tools: ARIo JSON export (zip file), Oracc, After Schmitt 2009, license CC0 1.0
Fonts
- Cormorant Garamond, Google Fonts, Christian Thalmann, the Cormorant Project Authors, license SIL OFL 1.1
- Gentium Book Plus, Google Fonts, SIL International, license SIL OFL 1.1(Reserved Font Names: Gentium, SIL)
- Noto Sans Old Persian, Google Fonts, The Noto Project Authors, license SIL OFL 1.1
- Noto Sans Cuneiform, Google Fonts, The Noto Project Authors, license SIL OFL 1.1
- Noto Sans Cuneiform Landing, Google Fonts, The Noto Project Authors, license SIL OFL 1.1
- Vazirmatn, Google Fonts, Saber Rastikerdar, the Vazirmatn Project Authors, license SIL OFL 1.1
Images
- The Cyrus Cylinder, full side view of the front, British Museum: photo by Prioryman, Wikimedia Commons, license CC BY-SA 3.0
- The Cyrus Cylinder, full side view of the back, British Museum: photo by Prioryman, Wikimedia Commons, license CC BY-SA 3.0
- Close-up of the Babylonian cuneiform lines on the Cyrus Cylinder: photo by Fæ, Wikimedia Commons, license CC BY-SA 3.0
- The Cyrus Cylinder at an angle, showing one open end, on a black background: photo by dynamosquito from France, Wikimedia Commons, license CC BY-SA 2.0
- The Old Persian column of the trilingual Xerxes inscription on the rock of Van, Turkey: photo by Bjørn Christian Tørrissen, Wikimedia Commons, license CC BY-SA 3.0
- Stone foundation tablet of Xerxes I, inscription XPf, National Museum of Iran: photo by Ywpark2003 Prof. Yong Woo Park, Wikimedia Commons, license CC BY 4.0
- A panel of Old Persian cuneiform carved in stone at Persepolis, wedges clear: photo by Radosław Botev, Wikimedia Commons, license CC BY 3.0 PL
- A cuneiform inscription panel framed by two relief figures at Persepolis: photo by Ziegler175, Wikimedia Commons, license CC BY-SA 4.0
- Close-up of the cuneiform wedges of the Darius inscription at Ganjnameh, near Hamadan: photo by Adam Jones from Kelowna, BC, Canada, Wikimedia Commons, license CC BY-SA 2.0
- Foundation plate of Darius I from the Apadana at Persepolis, inscription DPh: photo by an unknown author, Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain Mark 1.0
- The ruins of Persepolis, columns and a doorway, in silhouette at sunset: photo by Bockomet, Wikimedia Commons, license CC BY-SA 4.0
- The Behistun relief: Darius the Great above the bound rebel kings, with the trilingual inscription: photo by Hamidreza Sorouri for PersianDutchNetwork, Wikimedia Commons, license CC BY-SA 4.0
- The lamassu, human-headed winged bulls, of the Gate of All Nations at Persepolis: photo by Carole Raddato, Wikimedia Commons, license CC BY-SA 2.0
- The lion attacking a bull, relief on the Apadana staircase at Persepolis: photo by ywpark2003 Prof. Yong Woo Park, Wikimedia Commons, license CC BY 4.0
- The Ionian delegation of tribute bearers on the east staircase of the Apadana, Persepolis: photo by A.Davey from Portland, Oregon, EE UU, Wikimedia Commons, license CC BY 2.0
- The tomb of Cyrus the Great at Pasargadae: photo by Diego Delso, Wikimedia Commons, license CC BY-SA 4.0
- The rock-cut royal Achaemenid tombs at Naqsh-e Rostam: photo by Alen Ištoković, Wikimedia Commons, license CC BY 3.0
- The glazed brick frieze of archers from the palace of Darius at Susa, Louvre: photo by Jastrow (2007), Wikimedia Commons, Public Domain Mark 1.0
- Map of the Achaemenid Empire at its greatest extent, about 500 BCE: map by Mossmaps (original map), corrections by पाटलिपुत्र, Wikimedia Commons, license CC BY-SA 4.0
- Ground 026, ambientCG, license CC0 1.0
- Sandstone Cracks, Poly Haven, Rob Tuytel, license CC0 1.0
- Head of a Persian guard, The Metropolitan Museum of Art collection, license CC0 1.0
- Lobed bowl with a royal inscription, The Metropolitan Museum of Art collection, license CC0 1.0
- Lobed bowl with a royal inscription, The Metropolitan Museum of Art collection, license CC0 1.0
- Cylinder seal, The Metropolitan Museum of Art collection, license CC0 1.0
- Cylinder seal, The Metropolitan Museum of Art collection, license CC0 1.0
- Cuneiform tablet impressed with seals: administrative document inscribed in Achaemenid Elamite, The Metropolitan Museum of Art collection, license CC0 1.0
- Cuneiform tablet: Gula incantation, The Metropolitan Museum of Art collection, license CC0 1.0
- Cuneiform cylinder: inscription of Nebuchadnezzar II describing the construction of the outer city wall of Babylon, The Metropolitan Museum of Art collection, license CC0 1.0
- Cuneiform cylinder: inscription of Nebuchadnezzar II describing the construction of the outer city wall of Babylon, The Metropolitan Museum of Art collection, license CC0 1.0
- Vessel terminating in the forepart of a fantastic leonine creature, The Metropolitan Museum of Art collection, license CC0 1.0
- Relief: two servants bearing food and drink, The Metropolitan Museum of Art collection, license CC0 1.0
- Bull's head from column capital, The Metropolitan Museum of Art collection, license CC0 1.0
- Daric with king, The Metropolitan Museum of Art collection, license CC0 1.0
- Fragment of a Wall Decoration from the Palace of Xerxes: "Guardsman" in Procession, The Cleveland Museum of Art collection, license CC0 1.0
- The preview image of this page, Spectre Creation, adapted from "Cyrus' cylinder.jpg" by dynamosquito from France, license CC BY-SA 2.0
3D models
- The Cyrus Cylinder, a reconstruction in 3D with the grooves of the real text, Spectre Creation (model, grooves and maps), Original work, with the CC BY 4.0 scan below as its surface
- "The Cyrus Cylinder" (3D scan of British Museum 1880,0617.1941): its form, its damage and the hue of its clay, Sketchfab, artfletch, license CC BY 4.0
- Inscription on a barrel-cylinder of Cyrus, 5R pl. 35 (H. C. Rawlinson and T. G. Pinches, 1880), Leiden University Libraries scan, Public Domain Mark 1.0
- BIN II pl. XXI no. 32 (J. B. Nies and C. E. Keiser, 1920), Yale fragment NBC 2504: Historical, Religious and Economic Texts and Antiquities (BIN II), free copy at archive.org, Public domain in the USA
- clay_floor_001 (micro detail of the clay skin), Poly Haven, CC0
- clay_plaster (relief and color of the broken surfaces), Poly Haven, CC0
- Reading magnifier, Spectre Creation (original design), Original work
- dark_wood (wood of the handle), Poly Haven, CC0
- Draco 3D decoder (glTF build), GitHub, Google LLC, Apache 2.0